Montreal Canada Weather Monthly Averages
The climate in Canada Honda is referred to as a local steppe climate. During the year, there is little rainfall in Canada Honda. The climate here is classified as. Agradecemos a nuestro socio: NOAA. For the month of febrero, average values for station „Montreal“ were calculated from climate data measured between the. Weather History for Montreal Weather Center, QC - Get Weather History data by month, or year with details like temperature, humidity, wind, etc. on Weather T = Trace of Precipitation, MM = Missing Value, Source: Averaged Metar Reports .
Sightseeing touring is regarded to be the most common tourist activity. They depend on what is required by planners, members of tourism industry and tourists themselves. Methods used should be transparent as well as simply expressed and clearly explained. Above all, planners require climate data that is quality-checked, easy to use [i. Applications aimed directly at the tourist involve, among other things, the role of climate in considerations of destination choice - especially in relation to increasing use of the Internet.
The research addresses the theme of tourism climate as an adjunct to a variety of decision making processes ranging from those related to such things as the development and location appropriate recreational facilities, or determining the length of the recreation season during which a facility will operate, to those as specific as planning future activities involving personal decisions of when and where to go for a holiday.
For example, Perry suggested that people leave swimming pools and golf courses on wet days and converge on nearby towns in search of amusement indoors. Therefore, depending on the weather sensitivity of the recreational activity, climatic information can help in the planning, scheduling and promoting of alternative indoor entertainment facilities.
Perry also describes the use of climatic information in publicity campaigns to condition tourists' expectations of climate at a certain locations.
In this context, considerable effort has gone into devising numerical indices of climate that summarise the significance of climate for tourism Peguy, ; Poulter, ; Fergusson, ; Rackliff, ; Hughes, ; Davis, ; Murray, ; Mieczkowski, ; Harlfinger, ; Becker, This is because of the multivariable nature of climate and the complex way they come together to give meaning to a particular weather or climate condition in terms of recreation or tourism.
These indices facilitate interpretation montreal canada weather monthly averages the integrated effects of various atmospheric elements and permit places to be compared. The problem is all of these is climate ratings are montreal canada weather monthly averages as non have been empirically tested, with the exception of study by Harlfinger It is clear, however, that if climatic information is to be useful in decision-making, it needs to be presented in a form appropriate to the problem.
Tourists respond to the integrated effects of the atmospheric environment rather than to climatic averages. It is generally accepted, therefore, that standard weather data or even secondary climatic variables are not always reliable indicators of the significance of atmospheric conditions.
At any given air temperature, for example, the thermal conditions experienced will vary depending on the relative influence and often offsetting effects of wind, humidity, solar radiation and level of a person's activity. Moreover, the design of a particular thermal assessment scheme will depend on the intended use as well as on the nature of the thermal climatic conditions to which the scheme is to be applied.
For example, schemes have been devised for groups of runners de Freitas et al,survival in climates of extreme cold de Freitas and Symon, and for general purposes of human climate classification Auliciems, de Freitas and Hare, ; Auliciems and Kalma, ; de Freitas, The importance of this has been recognised in climate-recreation research Terjung, ; Bauer, ; Reifsnyder,but so far there have been few convincing studies aimed at to identify optimal or preferred conditions for various outdoor recreational activities.
There have been even fewer that examine the sensitivity of tourism to atmospheric conditions generally. In some cases, as in the work of Paulsimple climatic indices such as the Thom Discomfort Index and the Montreal canada weather monthly averages Chill Index have been computed from climatological data and, in the case of Greengeneralised quantitative summations of weather variables arbitrarily weighted have been employed.
Other researchers such as TerjungDanilovaBauer and Yapp and MacDonald have used more sophisticated measures of tourism climate based on the body's thermal exchanges with the environment.
Mieczkowski has devised a broadly based climatic index for evaluating world climates for tourism. However, meaning attached to these measures has been secondarily derived and interpreted without field investigation.
It was with the above in mind that the work by de Freitas set out to examine, by way of a case study in Australia, methods capable of giving information that can be used to appraise and rate montreal canada weather monthly averages climates in terms of user sensitivity and satisfaction. Ideally, given the complexity of the problem of addressing the amenity role of climate, the research montreal canada weather monthly averages concentrate initially on a well-defined human activity; preferably one that is clearly linked with amenity resource attributes of the atmospheric environment.
These requirements are fulfilled by a variety of outdoor recreational activities of which beach recreation montreal canada weather monthly averages to be the most appropriate. There are several reasons for this. Therefore, sample populations can be readily observed, and the compact area facilitates on-site monitoring of atmospheric and associated environmental variables representative of ambient conditions.
From a research standpoint these characteristics offer a relatively controlled situation. Thus, greater knowledge of the influence of climate on beach recreation is likely to be economically important to the coastal recreation industry.
Since the heat balance of the body is fundamental to assessments of human climates, the first category involves specification of the thermal environment. The second category of questions centres on assessing the atmospheric resource generally in terms of recreation. Thus some climate variables are entirely physical e. Many writers on the subject of tourism climate single out the thermal component of climate as the most important element. The nature of the relationship between the atmospheric environment and the enjoyable pursuit of outdoor recreational activity may be seen to be a function of facets of on-site atmospheric conditions.
A conceptual framework for this is shown schematically in Figure 1. The facets of tourism climate given at the top of Figure 1 are 1 thermal, 2 physical, and 3 aesthetic. The method used must include both the attributes of those exposed and the functional attributes of the environment as well as the complete range of atmospheric variables. This means identifying subjective reaction classified on a favourable-to-unfavourable spectrum as a measure of desirability of conditions.
The occurrence of high wind, for example, can have either a direct mechanical effect on the vacationer, causing inconvenience personal belongings having to be secured or weighted down or an indirect effect such as blowing sand causing annoyance.
Others things that fall into physical montreal canada weather monthly averages are rain durationrain days frequencyice, snow, severe weather, air quality and ultraviolet radiation. The above factors are summarised in Table1. Conceptual framework for the study of tourism climate showing the make-up of on-site climate conditions and two independent methods for assessing human response or reaction.
These can be used for rating weather and climate in terms participant sensitivity and satisfaction to conditions. Various facets of tourism climate and their significance and impact. By employing, independently, separate indicators of the on-site experience, the reliability of each was examined and interpreted by comparison and apparent threshold conditions verified.
Little is known about the effects of climate on human behaviour, but it is clear that in some cases behaviour is a response that modifies or enhances the effects of the atmosphere.
Behaviour can be used as a measure of human sensitivity and satisfaction. The results of the research de Freitas, showed that body-atmosphere energy balance indices are reliable indicators of on-site thermal conditions.
Thermal component is main factor determining the desirability of weather Behaviour is a reliable indicator of the significance of weather conditions. Use of shade and clothing are best indicators of heat and cold stress, respectively. Change of posture related to on-site conditions, to a greater degree than expected. Duration of visit is best behavioural indicator of overall significance of recreation climate. Certain behavioural adjustments use of shade umbrellas, windbreaks and possibly montreal canada weather monthly averages frequency of swims serve to reduce the beach user's sensitivity to on-site atmospheric conditions, although stated preferences as regards beach weather remain the same.
In the absence of ideal conditions, an individual can create, to a point, a personal microclimate that is acceptable. Surprisingly, attendance is a poor measure of demand i. The work suggested that time spent on site per visit duration of visit is a more accurate measure of user response and preferences. Furthermore montreal canada weather monthly averages findings of the research indicated that atmospheric conditions within the broad zone of acceptability are those that the beach user can readily cope with or effectively modify.
Optimum thermal conditions are those requiring no specific adjustment or behavioural fine-tuning. More field studies are required along with work that assembles observational data to determine the actual responses, perceptions, needs, reactions and expectations of vacationers.
Anderssen and Colberg have shown that of factors that affect tourism demand, the dominant attributes of a tourist destination are cost, climate and scenery.
Research is needed to assess the relative importance and role of the climate attribute as a component of the tourist destination image. There a number of studies are in the tourism climatology literature that identify potentially useful areas for future research.
For example, Ross has shown that climate, as a component of destination image, does strongly influence tourist behaviour. Publicity about climate to be expected in an area can also modify a tourist's expectations and thus their degree of satisfaction with the outcome of the experience.
There is the often-quoted example of montreal canada weather monthly averages Irish Tourist Board, which shrewdly promoted the delights of a cool and rainy Irish summer.
It was thought to have influenced the expectations of tourists, thus reducing their disappointment. Ross has also explored the influence of a variety of climatic conditions on both ideal holiday destinations and on perceptions of the wet tropics area of Far North Queensland. There is also the question of forecasting tourist travel overseas based on climate. Palutikof and Agnew and Palutikof have explored this area.
Predictions of tourist travel based on these findings could be important to the travel industry and justify further research. There are costs to both tourists and tourism operators resulting from the occurrence of unexpected less than satisfactory climate.
These need to be fully documented and methods and approaches to studying these require attention. What is now required is research that tests the accuracy of such an index or devises a similar index using systematic surveys to interpret it, rather than relying on arbitrary and subjective value judgements of the researcher, as in the case of TCI.
Weather in Canada, Winter tips, price of clothes and part time jobs
In all of this, the aim should be to adopt standard methods and indices as far as possible. There is also a need to provide potential tourists with probabilistic information on climate to be expected at various destinations. This will lead to improved information and improved choice. Clearly, much work remains to be done. Economic Geographer, 49, Agnew, M. P, Impacts of climate on the demand for tourism. Anderssen, P.
Auliciems, A. Bauer, D. Becker, S. GeoJournal, 44 4 Cabanac, M. Science, Clawson, M. Sewell ed. Crowe, R. Weather, 30, Danilova, N. Meteorological Translations, No. Davis, N. Weather, 23, De Freitas, C. Atmospheric Environment, 13, Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, 24, International Journal of Biometeorology, 29, Polar Record, 23 Weather and Climate, 7, International Journal of Climatology, 10, Fergusson, P. Weather, 19, Findlay, B.
Finkelstein, J. New Zealand Geographer, 27 1 Gates, A. Toronto, Atmospheric Environment Service. Simulation of water recreation users' decisions. Land Economics, 49 3 Green, J. Weather, 22, Harlfinger, O. GeoJournal, 25 4 Hunt, J. Journal of Travel Research, 13, Kevan, S. International Journal of Biometeorology, 37, Masterton, J. Maunder, W. New Zealand Geographer, 28, Mercer, D.
Journal of Leisure Research, 3 4 Australian Geographer, 12, Mieczkowski, Z. Canadian Geographer, 29 3 Murray, R. Weather, 27, Paul, A. Taylor ed. Perry, A. In: Applied Climatology: Principles and Practice. Thompson and Allen Perry edsRoutledge, London, Journal of Leisure Research, 1 3 Palutikof J.
Reifsnyder, W. Biometeorology 8, Overdieck D. Rense, W. Ross, G. Smith, K. Smith, C. Weather, 40, Terjung, W.
California Geographer, 9, Thornes, J. Weather, 7, Yapp, G. McDonald, A recreation climate model. Journal of Environmental Management, 7, These have montreal canada weather monthly averages based on the assumption that a majority of tourists are entirely motivated by climatic conditions, of a certain and common nature. Mintel claimed that 73 percent of respondents to a UK survey cited 'good weather' as the main reason to go abroad. This study develops the idea that tourist decisions related to trips within the UK by UK residents has a far more sophisticated relationship with climatic conditions and these cannot be adequately captured by simple quantitative indices.
The paper develops a qualitative methodology using in-depth discussion groups to investigate the importance of tourist memories and experiences in relation to climate.
It is found that definitions of 'bad' and 'good' weather are more complex than quantitative indices suggest. Montreal canada weather monthly averages the other hand, these trips account for a lesser percentage of total expenditure.
Tourist-climate studies often seek to explain where climatic considerations are positioned amongst the set of factors that influence holiday location and the timing of decisions. According to many authors, for instance Perryclimate constitutes an important part of the environmental context in which recreation and tourism takes place.
However the influence of meteorological conditions will be dependent on the chosen activity and tourist expectations. The classification of any holiday into these broad types therefore relates to the tourist activity eg beach tourism, mountaineering, sailing or sightseeing and on local climatic conditions both in source and destination locations. In some instances, according to Mieczkowskimany tourists are entirely motivated by montreal canada weather monthly averages considerations. We assume that domestic tourists in the United Kingdom are unlikely to fall into this category.
Before making such an assumption it is necessary to determine which climatic factors, or combination of climatic factors are relevant. Writers, such as Davis and Mieczowskihave identified temperature, sunshine and rainfall amounts as most important. Climatic means for United Kingdom resorts compare unfavourably with, for example, Mediterranean resorts. In efforts to capture combined effects of weather variables, indices have been developed to assess tourism climate.
There exists a growing literature on the use of climatic indices to rate the climatic suitability of a location to tourist activity.
However these have been based on the assumption that a majority of tourists are motivated by climatic conditions, of a certain and common nature.
In the development of this index and similar quantitative measures there is little evidence relating to how preferences were assessed. In many cases this climate attractiveness is entirely derived from energy montreal canada weather monthly averages type equations based on sedentary individuals.
Although these provide highly accurate and potentially useful information such positivist approaches fail to recognise the social montreal canada weather monthly averages of individual decision-making. This study therefore employs an alternative qualitative approach to the investigation of climate resources.
Methodology In undertaking this piece of research we have adopted the epistemology of cultural geography. There is in fact no common vision of the world. Matthews, Limb and Taylor, These textual communities are not all equally represented in the decision- making of society. Rather, while some are insiders in positions of power, others are montreal canada weather monthly averages as outsiders.
In conducting this study we have purposefully chosen examples of both insider and outsider groups. The methodology adopted is qualitative and more specifically involves in-depth discussion groups.
These are not focus groups which meet once and tend to deal with issues in a frenetic and superficial way. In-depth discussion groups meet more than once. They are run using principles of group analysis and allow a group identity and memory to be created. In geography, groups were pioneered successfully Burgess, Limb and Harrison, have become widely accepted Special Issue of Area and have been recently and extensively used Bedford and BurgessKnealeJackson and Crang There are a number of key aspects of the research project.
These include recruitment, conducting the groups, collecting the data and interpreting the data. In choosing who to include in montreal canada weather monthly averages groups we were keen to have groups which traditionally have been seen as insiders professional males and middle class walkers and outsiders children and mums with preschool children. The group montreal canada weather monthly averages generatedmontreal canada weather monthly averages of data per group.
The interpretation of the data was started immediately after the discussion in the form of a debrief between the conductor and the observer. Thematic analysis of the transcripts was then undertaken generating in vivo drawn from the discussions and meta drawn from the literature codes.
These themes were then written up under the following headings: 1. The social context of holiday decision-making 4. For mums and professional montreal canada weather monthly averages there is a wide range of factors that affect their evaluation of a holiday see table 2 and 3 Weather is mentioned by all three groups but is particularly important for the mums because of their concern about how their children would cope with hot weather.
Interestingly they see hot weather as a problem rather than an advantage. Male Professionals Mothers Children Different cultures Leaving everything behind Weather Different food Getting outside more Different scenery Something worth photographing Fewer toys, so children are more Chance to relax resourceful Escaping domestic tasks Getting away from jobs Away from it all Natural history Getting away from routine Getting brown Being active Everybody is more relaxed Exploration Change of scenery Restaurant and meals Spending time with children Good weather Extra money Drinking Children enjoying being with both parents Trekking Relaxing Varies over lifecycle The next part of the analysis seeks to put weather in perspective by uncovering a favourite UK holiday memory.
This was achieved by using a relaxation and retrospective exercise with the groups in which they went back to a favourite UK holiday memory using their imagination and then drew a picture of what they had remembered. Such exercises have been observed before to generate particularly vivid memories. The experiences which were described by the groups reflect a variety of elements.
Experiences again reflect a variety of elements. There is no mention of weather by professional males figure 6. Our conclusions from these three analyses is that rather than being a distinct and isolated variable, weather is embedded in the fabric of holiday life. There is variation within and between groups in the extent to which weather features.
In particular the Professional Males group do not mention weather. It is therefore important to investigate why that may be the case. On the one hand there is a clear view among the children that bad weather can montreal canada weather monthly averages a holiday and the elements of bad weather-cloud, rain and low temperatures are identified.
On the other hand there is a recognition that hot weather presents a risk of burning and sunstroke. The professional males give a very different response table montreal canada weather monthly averages. Rather they see rain as a natural hazard when walking or exploring and argue that they enjoy it anyway. Much emphasis is placed by them on having realistic expectations and a positive attitude whatever the weather.
Their indifference to the weather may explain why weather does not feature in their evaluations and experiences analysed earlier.
There is however an acknowledgement that, at its extreme, poor weather in the form of low cloud and rain can be dangerous when hill walking. They also point out that they do seek to avoid very hot weather by choosing carefully where and when to go.
They too therefore express some ambivalence in their attitudes to weather. To that end we chose groups who might be seen to be very different in terms of their freedom of choice. Children and mums with young children have long since been recognised as less powerful groups within society. Whereas our montreal canada weather monthly averages males and middle class walkers might be seen as more privileged in this respect.
Our discussions with the children suggested that there was a difference in the group between a minority whose parents consulted them about holiday decisions including likely weather conditions and the majority for whom such decisions were out of their hands.
For the group of mums with young children there was a constant compromise between what weather adults might prefer and what weather they would deem suitable for their children. Compromising is not only restricted to children. There seems to be a clear division between groups who are relatively less or more powerful in making choices about holiday weather conditions.
There was no doubt that the children were tuned into the fact that weather affects moods and the emotions cloudy weather makes you moody, warmth gives you the incentive to get up and do something. To illustrate this point further we have chosen the following extracts from the transcripts. From these extracts we begin to see evidence for a more complex and intimate appreciation of weather. In particular weather has a role in lending light, colour, character, movement and atmosphere to scenery.
Conclusion We acknowledge that our study only begins to explore the values and meanings that people have towards weather. However, there are a number of conclusions which we tentatively make. Second, it is clear that different groups of people evaluate and remember weather in different ways. Indeed, people montreal canada weather monthly averages ambivalent attitudes to weather. Fourth, we have found that responses to weather conditions are mediated by other factors such as company, activity and expectations.
Finally we would suggest that the qualitative method illustrates that experiences of weather are rich and engage the emotions and senses in ways which are not readily evident through quantitative analysis. References Amit-Talai V. Area28, 2. Bedford T. Burgess J. Limb M. Theory and practice, Environment and Planning A, Crang M. Davis N. Matthews H. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 22,3: Mintel Special Report — Holidays. Mintel Holiday by Lifestage. Leisure Intelligence.
September Mieczkowski Z. The Canadian Geographer. Perry A Recreation and Tourism. Applied Climatology Smith K. Perry swansea. They are forecast to increase even more in frequency in association with projected climate change as a result of global warming The impact of very hot weather on the tourism industry of the Mediterranean will be considered.
The measures and responses that can be adopted to alleviate the impacts will be reviewed. Adaptive responses can be learnt from other areas that experience intense summer heat and from a consideration of the views of holidaymakers to the problems that can accompany excessive summer heat.
The use of indices to measure the desirability of the Mediterranean in relation to other potential holiday destinations will be explored. Future tourism scenarios in the Mediterranean need to consider also changing demographic and economic conditions.
Climate change will present new challenges but also lead to new opportunities for tourist investment to capitalise on the new environmental conditions. Keywords: Heat, drought, tourism, Mediterranean Introduction The climate of the Mediterranean is perceived, quite erroneously, by many tourists as idyllic, benign and delightful. It is the renowned radiance and clarity of light ,rather than the heat- waves, droughts, storms and floods that can plague the region at times, that have made the area seductive to north Europeans for many centuries.
Climate constitutes an important part of the environmental context in which recreation and tourism take place and because tourism is a voluntary and discretionary activity, participation will depend on perceived favourable conditions. For many activities there are critical threshold levels beyond which participation and enjoyment levels fall and safety or health may be endangered.
Concern about skin cancer and worries about UV-B radiation has so far tended merely to modify behaviour e.
It is still the case that for many the acquisition of a sun tan and the purchase of a holiday is as important as buying consumer durables for the home. The beach has become a fun place of ease, entertainment and relaxation. The higher temperatures and settled weather of the Mediterranean summer exerts a big attraction, but better summers at home will reduce overseas holiday bookings. Large numbers of people indulge in short-term opportunistic decision —making and switch there normal holiday preferences to take account of the unusually favourable conditions at home.
Such limited evidence does suggest that climate warming might alter the competitive balance of holiday destinations with adverse effects on high season tourism in the Mediterranean. A limited survey of UK travel agents revealed that their customers most of all wanted guaranteed fine warm weather.
Press reports about adverse health conditions, terrorism threats and devastating forest fires was more likely to concern customers than reports of very high temperatures. The Mediterranean is likely to become less attractive for health reasons in the summer. Apart from the dangers increasingly associated with skin cancer, many Mediterranean beach resorts may simply be too hot for comfort in the peak season, with a much higher frequency of severe heat waves Perry, Carter has used an approximate index of climatic favourability to investigate changes of seasonal climate in Europe under possible future climate change.
Results suggested that a climate warming of 4 degrees C would lead to a shift in the optimum summertime climate from the traditional southern coastal resorts northwards to currently less fashionable regions.
This result holds true regardless of whether the warming is associated with moderate decreases or increases of precipitation. Mieczkowski proposed a tourism climate index TCI as a means of evaluating world climates for tourism. Using the ACACIA A2 High scenarios the index was calculated for the recent good summer of and an average summer montreal canada weather monthly averages, together with the expected index value inand for the UK resort of Bournemouth.
From Fig 1 it can be clearly seen that in the 21st century most summers are likely to have a preponderance of very good, excellent or ideal days for the holiday-maker in the UK However the attractiveness of the Mediterranean coastal zone in spring and autumn would be enhanced relative montreal canada weather monthly averages the present It is in the months of October-November that the montreal canada weather monthly averages warmth and sunshine of the Mediterranean provides the biggest contrast with the weather in northern Europe.
At this season maximum temperatures at present are C higher than in London whilst in April this difference is only C. Rotmans, Hulme and Downing suggest that the area suitable for sun-related tourism will decline in much of Italy and Greece as summer temperatures make beach tourism too uncomfortable It is single-product destinations that are most vulnerable. A few destinations e. Cyprus and Corsica offer the potential to commute from hot beaches to cooler mountains but the Mediterranean area is likely to face other climate-related problems, such as marine water pollution and the scarcity of fresh water supplies.
The availability of water supply could become a major constraint and the quantity and quality of water available may not be sufficient to sat6isy future tourist demands. Small islands, for example in the Aegean, could be particular affected if tourism is allowed to continue to grow. Nicholls and Hoozemans have shown that in the Mediterranean there are islands exceeding 10 square km in size. Most have a low resource base but significant tourist development, Decline in rainfall and water supply availability, together with beach erosion could undermine their tourist industries and hence their local economies.
It has been suggested Karas that Crete could experience serious water shortages in 5 years out of 6 by There is likely to be an increase in friction, with a conflict of interest between local people and tourist authorities on the use of scarce water. It has been calculated that a luxury hotel consumes around litres of fresh water per montreal canada weather monthly averages per night Water-hungry land uses like golf courses and water parks will be seen as water-stealers by local people.
Projected decreases in runoff will exacerbate the problem of salinisation of water resources. Increased degradation of the environment and spreading desertification is likely to make some areas less scenically attractive to tourists HEATWAVES Two major factors have interacted to impede the development of a definition of what a heatwave is, namely, the absence of a simple meteorological measure representing the complex interaction between the human body and the thermal environment, and the lack of suitable homogeneous time series of the meteorological variables likely to be involved Robinson Should we use exceedance of fixed absolute values, or deviation from the normal local climate as the basis for a definition?
There are clearly several dimensions montreal canada weather monthly averages very hot weather that need to be considered and examples of. Extended heat waves, defined as 10 days or more, appear to be becoming more frequent in the Mediterranean.
In the 15 years to Italy endured 8 such heatwaves. In addition short- duration heat waves of days with temperatures 7 degrees C or more above normal have occurred on 33 occasions in the central Mediterranean between Individual heat wave days have increased from 52 days in the decade to in the decade Conte,Sorani and Piervitali Heat waves cause rises in the death rate, especially in urban areas, for example in one episode from 13 July —2nd August in Rome deaths above the normal average occurred.
In more than residents died in Greece between st July Katsouyanni et al with a combination of temperatures above 40C and poor air quality In in Cyprus 45 deaths attributable to heat were noted when the maximum temperature exceeded 40C on 8 successive days.
In Montreal canada weather monthly averages the National Weather Service of Greece forecasts heat wave emergencies and warnings are disseminated to the public. Extreme heatwaves and the deaths involved frequently get reported in the media of foreign countries and give a negative image to potential holiday-makers. Even reports by reputable organizations can use hyperbole to get their message across. It has to be remembered that holiday-makers from northern Europe will be unused to temperatures as high as 40C and montreal canada weather monthly averages be more at risk than local people, who are used to long hot summers.
Gawith,Downing and Karacotas have shown that at Thessaloniki in northern Greece the temperature-humidity index THI which assesses the impact of high temperatures and humidity will rise above a value of 84 when nearly everyone feels uncomfortable for more than twice as long as at present by In addition montreal canada weather monthly averages will be significant increases in the shoulder warm periods suggesting a lengthening of the summer season.
Terradas and Lloret found that in coastal eastern Spain there has been increased fire activity and the number of days of very high fire risk is montreal canada weather monthly averages to increase further since there is a correlation between summer heat and fire occurrence.
In Italy a strong association has been found between the number of forest fires and both higher summer temperatures and lower summer precipitationMeasures such as the closure of forest and parkland in summer may becomke increasingly necessary The tourist industry is very vulnerable to natural disasters.
The publicity given to heat wave deaths in Greece in summer ,if repeated regularly, could act as a deterrent to tourism. In that year there were montreal canada weather monthly averages in the UK press of holidaymakers staying in their hotel rooms to try to escape the intense heat on the beaches.
Queues of Britons were reported at hospitals and pharmacies suffering from heatstroke and burns while others cut short their holidays and returned home early. Rising mean summer temperatures will inevitably be accompanied by more occasions of extreme maximum temperatures.
Extreme weather episodes are likely to have a stronger impact than average weather changes. Heat wave conditions are also implicated in the development and proliferation of algal blooms which can lead to closure of beaches ,disfiguration of the coastal environment, and kills of fish as has happened in the Adriatic DISEASE Higher temperatures could lead to some Mediterranean holiday areas becoming a suitable habitat for malaria-bearing mosquitos.
Spain, for example, is currently seen as a friendly easily accessable no risk destination not requiring immunisation, or courses of treatment against exotic diseases. It is anticipated that by the ;s suitable habitats for malaria will have spread northward from North Africa into Spain. Increases montreal canada weather monthly averages the incidence of food poisoning and food related diseases related to enhanced microbiological activity e.
There will be a higher risk of epidemics of cholera and montreal canada weather monthly averages as well as infectious diseases. Adverse publicity would follow such public health scares and frighten tourists away,as happened at Salou, Spain a few years ago. Extra costs will be involved in maintaining and strengthening public health defences and in health and hygiene education programmes. It is not always easy to tease out the impact of climate from the many other factors influencing holiday choice Perry Tourism is a continuously adapting industry, responding to changing demographic and economic conditions as well as to new demands and technologies.
Climate change will present new challenges but also lead to opportunities for tourist investment to capitalise on the new environmental conditions. Such a pattern might resemble the current profile of visitor demand for a resort like Dubai. Recently Maddison has indicated that a lengthening and flattening of the tourist season is likely in Greece although with overall tourist numbers almost unchanged.
Montreal canada weather monthly averages the traditional seasonal patters has as much to do with changing consumer attitudes as with developing new attractions and more targeted advertising could help in this respect. A longer tourist season would allow quicker returns on investment with more intensive utilization of facilities over a longer period.
What in the UK is called the short-haul beach package has almost certainly peaked, but beach holidays will still be popular. They will be price-sensitive and probably booked later and we are likely to see greater segregation between resorts who continue to cater for this market and those who choose to chase other markets and become more diversified.
Middleton 2 The larger numbers of older people in the population will still wish to escape the dark, dreary winters of northern Europe. More are likely to consider moving permanently to, or montreal canada weather monthly averages second homes in ,Mediterranean montreal canada weather monthly averages. King, Warnes and Williams have shown that in several retirement destinations. Thus the climate of the receiving region for these migrants has been considered to be the most important pull factor.
There are considerable planning implications if the growth of new apartments, villas and bungalows is not to cause environmental blight in some of these coastal areas.
Along with this development will come increased demand for leisure pursuits e. Such accommodation will attract a premium price, whilst poorer quality self-catering apartments and rooms without air conditioning will be much less attractive in the summer.
At present only a fifth of rooms in hotels in Mediterranean countries are in the 4 and 5 star categories. They will thus seek to minimise the likelihood that their holiday will be affected by circumstances perceived as adverse. More research is needed to quantify the climatic wellbeing of tourists by developing and extending tourism climatic indices and beach comfort indices. The primary resources of sun, sea and beaches are likely to be re-evaluated in the light of expected climate change.
Finnish Meteorological Institute Helsinki. Wiley London Gawith M. In: Climate, Change and Risk ed. Downing ,A. Oissthoorn, and R. Toll, Routledge, Giles A and Perry AH The use of a temporal montreal canada weather monthly averages to investigate the possible impact of projected global warming on the UK tourist industry.
Web site: www. Lancet 3: Kevan S. The montreal canada weather monthly averages of climate change on flows montreal canada weather monthly averages British tourists. Climatic Change Middleton V Whither the package tour? Tourism Management Mieczkowski Z The tourism climatic index: a method of evaluating montreal canada weather monthly averages climates for tourism.
Geographical Magazine Perry AH Impacts of climate change on tourism in the Mediterranean: adaptive responses.
Agnew and Jean P. Email: m. Temperature has the greatest influence on international tourism. In hot years, tourists tend to prefer domestic to foreign beach holidays. For domestic tourism, the relationship with temperature is usually positive in the same month, except in winter sports regions. The climate impact depends on destination type; for example, coastal resorts in Italy respond more favourably to summer temperature increases than inland resorts.
There is some indication that weather in the intermediate seasons spring and autumn has a greater influence on tourist behaviour than is the case in winter and summer. The public perception survey suggests that during montreal canada weather monthly averages unusually hot summer, people are more likely to change their plans for day trips and short breaks than for their main holiday. Those that do change their holiday plans stay either at home or in their own country.
However, tour operators and managers plan their marketing strategies with very short time horizons and claim not to incorporate climate considerations. Nevertheless, tourism suppliers have shown some attempts to weatherproof the industry and tourism managers have a tendency to use bad weather as an excuse for poor tourism figures.
Keywords: Tourism demand, climate impact, UK Introduction Tourism has become the largest and most rapidly expanding economic activity in the world. Weather and climate do not figure prominently in the academic tourism literature, yet it is clear that the climate of many countries is an important asset for tourism.
Although the tourist industry is accustomed to rapid change, climate variability and change could have major implications for the tourist industry. In this paper we investigate the climate sensitivity of domestic and international tourism. For the tourism sector, we examined climate impacts on international and domestic tourism, using two different approaches: 1 a quantitative approach using regression modelling, supplemented by 2 a qualitative approach using surveys of the perception of climate impacts and in particular of climate extremes.
W represents the climate variable that is hypothesised to influence X and may be a vector. Since the climate of a previous time step may influence current behaviour, a one-year-lagged value of W is also included, and u denotes the error term. The lag-structure for the quarterly model includes the influence of the previous quarter and the influence of the same quarter in the previous year.
Monthly variables were modelled in a similar manner, with 11 monthly dummies, and 1-month and month lags in the climate and impact domains. Deviations on this basic model were used in certain instances; for example, in the tourism analyses socio-economic variables such as GDP montreal canada weather monthly averages exchange rates were offered as candidate predictors alongside the climate and trend variables.
Impacts of climate on international tourism Two aspects of international tourism are considered, arrivals inward flows and departures outward flows. Departures Relative to other climate variables, temperature was generally regarded as having the greatest influence on international departures.
However, the direction of impact i. In general, wetter weather seems to encourage holidays abroad in both the current and following year. For the UK, precipitation was a more useful indicator of international departures than arrivals. Climate sensitivities seem to vary from season to season. Arrivals Temperature seems to be of overriding importance in explaining the variation in tourist arrivals.
Although sunshine variables were included in the UK model of international arrivals, they were generally of secondary importance to temperature. Annual arrivals to the UK were also positively associated with temperature.
The results suggest that warmer conditions in spring were especially important in attracting visitors to the UK in the following year. In the regression models developed the coefficient of determination varies between 0. Although of secondary importance, precipitation was also included in the models for international arrivals to the UK and West Germany.
In the UK, drier and sunnier conditions were generally associated with an increase in annual tourist arrivals. A global tourist destination model was developed by the Dutch research team. Annual arrivals the global aggregate were estimated using the following destination variables: year, the land-surface area of the country, GDP per capita, temperature and temperature squared. The estimates of the parameters for temperature were found to be plausible, stable over the sample, and robust to variations in the model specification.
The inclusion of both temperature and temperature-squared implies that there is an optimal summer temperature for tourism. Table 1 Optimal holiday temperatures for all international tourists, and for tourist arrivals to selected countries. R2 deviation is given in brackets World The relationship was usually positive in the same month e. In regression modelling, temperature squared was the most important climate predictor of UK domestic tourism.
In countries with a significant winter sports market, a negative association was shown between winter tourism and temperature. For example, the regional number of Italian domestic bed nights in winter was strongly negatively correlated with the monthly regional temperature in the previous month. This may be due to the negative influence of unusually mild temperatures on the skiing season in the Italian Alps and Apennines. Precipitation was a significant predictor of domestic tourism in the regression models for domestic tourism in Germany; the association was generally negative in the same month.
In the UK, June rainfall has the most significant impact on domestic holidays taken in August and October. In Italy, rainfall in the same month in the previous year appeared to act as a deterrent for domestic tourism, particularly in July. There is some indication that weather in the intermediate seasons spring and autumn has a greater influence on tourist behaviour than in the case of winter and summer. For example, in Niedersachsen, Germany, a strong association has been found between March temperature and domestic bed nights in the same month, in the following summer June to August and in the same month of the following year.
In Italy, higher temperatures in May and October seem particularly important at triggering domestic tourism flows. The nature of the climate impact depends on destination type. For example, coastal resorts in Italy respond more favourable to summer temperature increases than inland resorts. A similar result was also found in the Netherlands and Germany. Sensitivity to climate extremes appears to depend on the length of trip. In an unusually hot summer, most people do not alter plans for their main vacation.
During anomalously hot summer weather, people are more likely to change their plans for day trips than they are for short breaks, and are more likely to change their plans for short breaks than for their main holiday. This result is not surprising, since main holiday bookings are usually taken well in advance of the date of departure, montreal canada weather monthly averages the ability to change plans for the main vacation is therefore considerably less flexible than for short breaks or day trips.
Of those respondents who changed their main holiday plans, the majority decided to remain at home or to take a domestic holiday rather than to holiday abroad. Montreal canada weather monthly averages substitution effect substituting a domestic holiday for a holiday abroad in an unusually hot summer has also been noticed in the Netherlands and Germany. The responses to the hypothetical future state in which such hot summers become more common, suggest that the substitution of domestic for foreign holidays will become more popular, particularly in the UK and the Netherlands.
Köppen climate classification
In addition, the results suggest that unusually hot summers would favour the UK short-break tourist market relative to the other European countries considered. Even within a nation, there are regional differences in the response to climate extremes. For example, of those who altered their main holiday in response to the unusually hot summer, we find large differences in the actions of Scottish and English residents. Regional differences in response were also noted in Italy, where Sicilians were more likely to visit the beach in hot weather, while Lombardians are more likely to enjoy country pursuits.
Managerial perception of the impacts of climate extremes Telephone interviews were conducted with managers in the tourist industry.
The results complement those of the statistical analyses and the public-perception survey. It was acknowledged that weather conditions actual and anticipated are important for determining the attractiveness of a holiday destination. However, while recognising the importance of weather and climate, tourist agents do not plan for it. Tour operators and managers plan their marketing strategies with very short time horizons and claim not to incorporate climate considerations.
The flexibility in response to climate variability and change varies between sub-sectors of the tourist industry. Tourists have the greatest freedom of destination choice and have a certain degree of timing flexibility. Tourist operators also have considerable flexibility, if conditions are unfavourable in one area of the world, holidays can be targeted in a more favourable area.
Although tourist suppliers and local managers have the least flexibility, as noted above, they have shown attempts to reduce the sensitivity to climatic variations by introducing weather- independent tourist attractions.
Conclusions Tourism is a highly volatile and rapidly growing industry. There are extremely complex processes at work in tourism decision-making and it is not always easy to tease out the impact of climate from the many other factors influencing holiday choice.
Ideally, to understand the influence of climate more clearly we would have data differentiating between pre-booked and spontaneous trips, between destination type coastal, urban, winter sports regionsand information on the differences in climate between the source and destinations regions. Nevertheless, broad patterns in the relationship with climate have been identified and we have highlighted the aspects of tourism which have greater climate sensitivity and for which further research is required.
Travel and Tourist Intelligence, No. Bonchev str. The general influence of the solar and circulatory factors on the climate of this small territory is combined with the specific impact of the local physical-geographical factors, represented by the high mountain sys- tems as Rila, Pirin, Rhodopy, Balkan, etc.
The influence of these factors induces considerable seasonal and space climatic differences, varying from tropical to arctic climates. What is the role of the corresponding montreal canada weather monthly averages matic diversity for the recreation and tourism? This paper seeks for an answer of this question, basing on the method of the heat balance of the human body. However from the point of view of recreation-and-tourism the next fact is of an importance: in any given period of the yearly climatic cycle there are places of the territory of Bulgaria which are distinguished by favourable bioclimatic conditions.
In other case a risk to fall in a discomfort bioclimatic situation is quite possible here any time at given place, and any place at given time. As a rule the climate of Bulgaria is formed mainly under the influences of the mid-latitude air masses, montreal canada weather monthly averages the system of the West-East zonal air transfers.
The results of the experiment EX02 strongly suggest that the meridional SST gradient alone is not sufficient to explain the jet vertical structure, contrary to what has been previously suggested by Wang [ ]. Moreover, the results from EX03 show that the model is also not sensitive to montreal canada weather monthly averages in the height of the mountains in NSA. Hence, our results do not support also the hypotheses brought forward by Muñoz et al.
The latter, however, should be taken with montreal canada weather monthly averages, since in EX03 the model might experience problems related to imbalance in the pressure field, due to the changes in the terrain. We also compare the changes in the montreal canada weather monthly averages and vertical structure of the wind, under the modifications in the montreal canada weather monthly averages set. The differences between each experiment and the control run are close to zero in the vicinity of the jet core.
During this month, as mentioned above, synoptic processes can produce fluctuations in the pressure field and so in the wind. The impact of ENSO events on the wind over the same region during February has been already studied by Maldonado et al. Furthermore, we estimate the thermal wind using the geopotential height gradients as in Holton [ ] for each experiment. The thermal wind from EX01 and EX02 do not shown any remarkable differences; therefore, the results for those experiments are not shown.
In this section, we examine if precipitation anomalies are related with changes in the meridional SST gradient and topography, throughout variations of the CLLJ. These results from the experiments are not different at the 0.
The MSD, however, is well developed in all experiments between July and August in agreement with reanalysis. These findings further corroborate the fact that both the meridional SST gradient over the Caribbean Sea and the mountains over the NSA edge have minor impact on the precipitation over the Caribbean Sea in contrast to montreal canada weather monthly averages was previously shown [ Wang; Cook and Vizy, Chang and Oey].
The latter follows from the results that in none of the experiments the CLLJ has changed significantly to impact the moisture transport, and the vertical wind shear, which are known to be related with rainfall production in the region, resulting in modifications of the hydrological cycle.
It seems coherent as the results also show no influence on the strength or annual cycle of the CLLJ, assuming that the CLLJ and the precipitation over the Caribbean seem to be related as shown by previous study.
The discrepancies found in precipitation among the simulations might arise due to the fact that the rainfall area average includes regions located in both the Pacific and Caribbean basins, and the annual cycle of precipitation in these areas is not necessarily the same.
Other differences may be also related to the sensitivity of the model to ENSO, i. From the results of Maldonado et al. Precipitation during May—June in EX02 is, however, of the same order of magnitude than the control run with one possible reason being that the SST anomalies associated with precipitation anomalies during these months, as reported by Maldonado et al.
In this section, an alternative approach to understand the dynamics governing the structure of the CLLJ is presented. Furthermore, only results from reanalysis are shown, since the simulations show agreement with reanalysis in representing the dynamical variables studied in this work. In most of the literature the authors have tried to explain the CLLJ vertical structure and so the vertical wind shear using a baroclinic structure due to the surface temperature latitudinal gradients over the Caribbean Sea [e.
However, in the previous section it was found evidence that such a hypothesis does not explain the actual structure of the CLLJ. Another important feature highlighted in the literature is the fact that the wind is considered to be in geostrophic balance and therefore discarding the ageostrophic component, despite the proximity to the equator. In this figure the actual zonal wind is compared with the geostrophic zonal component.
From here, it is seen that the vertical shear of the actual wind cannot be explained by the vertical shear of its geostrophic zonal component. Conversely, the horizontal shear of the actual wind follows the horizontal shear of the geostrophic component of the wind. Moreover, the CLLJ vertical structure must be explained then by the interaction of the friction forces at the surface layer.
Therefore, this result suggests the importance of including the Coriolis and friction forces as was also noted by Cook and Vizy [ ], to get a complete understanding of the dynamics involve in the structure of the CLLJ. Previous work that focused on the climate dynamics in the Caribbean region has suggested that the vertical structure of the CLLJ is a result of montreal canada weather monthly averages SST latitudinal gradient within the basin [ Wangmontreal canada weather monthly averages.
In this study, we perform a set of idealized experiment using an atmospheric model to explore the contribution of the regional SST gradients and topography to the structure of the CLLJ. Our results show that the atmospheric model did a proper representation of important variables associated with the dynamics of the CLLJ and climate in Central America, such as the SLP and wind. The annual and seasonal cycles of fields such as pressure, wind, and precipitation show a bimodal structure in all the simulation comparable to reanalysis.
This outcome can be related to the fact that the SST area average over the Caribbean Sea did not change significantly in the simulations. The seasonal changes in the SST over the Caribbean Sea are influencing the rainfall and the tropical cyclone activity in association with other climate parameters such as the wind or the pressure. The regime of the rainfall is following the March season, and the higher amount of rainfall occurs when the SST are at their warmest in September—October.
This is also when the tropical storm activity is intense. Inoue et al. Nevertheless, the model was not sensitive to the modification neither in the SST configurations used as prescribed boundary conditions nor the changes in the topography in NSA. The differences found in the representation of the mean fields of SLP, wind, and precipitation were statistically not significant.
The annual and season cycles of these fields were not altered statistically speaking, under these modifications. Variability at interannual scales was also unaffected, with the exception of EX01 where the influence of ENSO was removed. For these reasons, it can be argued that the meridional SST gradient over the Caribbean Sea is not the main element producing the jet's structure in that region.
Our findings, however, do not discard the regional SST gradient seasonal cycle as an important element for precipitation and tropical cyclone activity in the region [ Wang and Enfield; Amador et al. Our findings do not support the possible influence on the CLLJ's vertical structure of the mountains over NSA through funnel effect or changes in the meridional geopotential height [ Muñoz et al.
These results, however, must be taken with caution, since in this case the model might be shown instability problems due to the imbalance of the pressure montreal canada weather monthly averages related to changes in the terrain input. These results are also reflecting the complexity of the dynamics governing the CLLJ intensity and vertical structure. Current hypothesis must be reviewed in order to fully understand the atmospheric dynamics over the Caribbean Sea.
All data for this paper are properly cited and referred to in the reference list. VolumeIssue If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered, and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account. If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username.
Open access. Research Article Free Access. Tito Maldonado Corresponding Author E-mail address: tito. Maldonado, E-mail address: tito.
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Unmodified SST data are used. Figure 1 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint. To illustrate the differences among the simulations described in section 2. The contour lines and color shades are spaced every 0. Figure 2 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint. Note that the black line is also representative EX01 and EX Figure 3 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint.
The difference is computed as EX02 minus CR The SST area average is estimated for the same region. Figure 4 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint.
Terrain setup used in a CR01 and in b experiment EX Color shades show the terrain height in meters above sea level. Figure 5 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint. Figure 6 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint. Monthly time series of the area average in the region bounded by Figure 7 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint.
Figure 8 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint. Dashed solid line contours show negative positive anomaly values. The contours are spaced each 0. Figure 9 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint. Figure 10 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint.
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